Otariid gammaherpesvirus 1 in South American fur seals (Arctocephalus australis) and a novel related herpesvirus in free-ranging South American sea lions (Otaria byronia): Prevalence and effects of age, sex, and sample type.

Otariid gammaherpesvirus 1 (OtGHV1) is associated with high rates of urogenital carcinoma in free-ranging California sea lions (Zalophus californianus; CSL), and until recently was reported only in the Northern Hemisphere. The objective of this study was to survey free-ranging South American sea lions (Otaria byronia; SASL) and South American fur seals (Arctocephalus australis: SAFS) in Punta San Juan, Peru for OtGHV1 and to determine prevalence characteristics. Twenty-one percent (14/67) of urogenital swabs collected over three years (2011, 2014, 2015) from live pinnipeds of both species tested positive with a pan-herpesvirus conventional PCR. Sequencing of SAFS amplicons revealed 100% homology to OtGHV1 at the DNA polymerase, glycoprotein B, and viral bcl2-like genes. Sequencing of SASL amplicons revealed a novel related virus, herein called Otariid gammaherpesvirus 8 (OtGHV8). For comparison of sample sites, urogenital, conjunctival, and oropharyngeal swabs collected from 136 live pinnipeds of both species at Punta San Juan between 2011-2018 were then assayed using quantitative PCR for a segment of the OtGHV1/8 DNA polymerase gene using a qPCR assay now determined to cross-react between the two viruses. In total, across both species, 38.6% (51/132) of urogenital swabs, 5.6% (4/71) of conjunctival swabs, and 1.1% (1/90) of oropharyngeal swabs were positive for OtGHV1/8, with SASL only positive on urogenital swabs. Results from SASL were complicated by the finding of OtGHV8, necessitating further study to determine prevalence of OtGHV1 versus OtGHV8 using an alternate assay. Results from SAFS suggest a potential relationship between OtGHV1 in SAFS and CSL. Though necropsy surveillance in SAFS is very limited, geographic patterns of OtGHV1-associated urogenital carcinoma in CSL and the tendency of herpesviruses to cause more detrimental disease in aberrant hosts suggests that it is possible that SAFS may be the definitive host of OtGHV1, which gives further insight into the diversity and phyogeography of this clade of related gammaherpesviruses.

Regional Anesthesia of the Dentition in Bennett's Wallaby (Macropus rufogriseus): Anatomical Landmarks and Approaches Assessed with Computed Tomography and Gross Dissection.

Dental disease is common in captive-managed macropods, including Bennett's wallabies, and is a significant cause of morbidity and mortality. Dental extractions and debridement of diseased tissue is often necessary for those undergoing treatment for severe dental disease. Regional anesthesia of the dentition is considered standard of care for domestic animals undergoing orofacial surgery, however, it is not routinely performed in macropods due to limited information on dental anatomy and block approaches. Regional block descriptions for the infraorbital, maxillary, inferior alveolar, and mental blocks in domestic dogs and cats were evaluated and adapted for use in Bennett's wallabies based on descriptions of their anatomy and examination of 2 skulls. These approaches were then performed on cadaver heads with iohexol and methylene blue dye, and block placement was assessed on computed tomography scans and by gross dissection. All block approaches described in this study resulted in appropriate placement of regional anesthesia of the dentition in Bennett's wallabies. They can thus be used by clinicians to improve the intra and postoperative pain control of patients and provide a high level of veterinary care.

CLINICOPATHOLOGIC EVALUATION OF AN EX SITU POPULATION OF ADULT AFRICAN WHITE-BELLIED PANGOLIN (PHATAGINUS TRICUSPIS).

Death due to illegal trade and trafficking serves as the largest threat to pangolins in their geographic range countries. Appropriate veterinary care is essential to the welfare of sick or debilitated pangolins. Given the challenge of comprehensive physical examination of this species due to its unique anatomic features and poorly studied physiology, laboratory diagnostics can provide essential information to guide appropriate medical care. This retrospective study included previously analyzed blood and urine samples collected from adult (n = 17) African white-bellied pangolins (Phataginus tricuspis) under managed care that were sampled over a 4-yr period as part of routine veterinary examinations. Samples from clinically normal animals were used to summarize results for this species. Pangolins had a lymphocyte-predominant leukogram with a mean neutrophil to lymphocyte ratio of 0.83 (min-max: 0.13-4.81). Seasonal, sex, and age differences were present for several hematologic and serum biochemical analytes. Urine samples had a median urine specific gravity (USG) of 1.040 (min-max: 1.006-1.060), a neutral-to-basic urine pH (6.0-8.6), and contained mainly struvite crystals or infrequently calcium oxalate dihydrate crystals. Winter samples had higher USG than summer samples. The clinicopathologic data provided herein offers applicable information useful for the clinical management of pangolins.

Multi-species outbreak of SARS-CoV-2 Delta variant in a zoological institution, with the detection in two new families of carnivores.

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has a worldwide distribution in humans and many other mammalian species. In late September 2021, 12 animals maintained by the Chicago Zoological Society's Brookfield Zoo were observed with variable clinical signs. The Delta variant of SARS-CoV-2 was detected in faeces and nasal swabs by qRT-PCR, including the first detection in animals from the families Procyonidae and Viverridae. Test positivity rate was 12.5% for 35 animals tested. All animals had been vaccinated with at least one dose of a recombinant vaccine designed for animals and all recovered with variable supportive treatment. Sequence analysis showed that six zoo animal strains were closely correlated with 18 human SARS-CoV-2 strains, suggestive of potential human-to-animal transmission events. This report documents the expanding host range of COVID-19 during the ongoing pandemic.

GLOBAL RETROSPECTIVE ANALYSIS OF PATHOLOGICAL FINDINGS IN ZOO-MANAGED GOELDI'S MONKEYS (CALLIMICO GOELDII), 1965-2018.

As part of the collaborative efforts and goals of managing zoo-housed Goeldi's monkeys, or callimicos (Callimico goeldii), a retrospective review of gross and histopathological postmortem examination reports submitted to the International Studbook Coordinator was carried out by veterinary representatives of the Species Survival Plan to investigate disease trends. A total of 1,887 postmortem reports (1965-2018) collected from more than 150 institutions were reviewed. Histologic findings from 862 postmortem reports and primary causes of mortality were compiled to determine the most common findings. Within the study population, 419 individuals (48.6%) were male, 383 (44.4%) female, and the remaining 60 (7%) of undetermined sex. The primary lesion at death in adults was chronic renal disease. The other prevalent lesions included cardiac disease, myelolipomas, enteritis, colitis, and hepatitis. In Great Britain and mainland Europe, Yersinia spp. infection had significantly higher prevalence than in North American callimico populations. Multiple lesions affecting more than one organ system were identified in many animals of this study population. Results also showed that for adult callimicos in zoological institutions in North America, Europe, and Great Britain, life span has been increasing over the last 50 yr.

Complications associated with total hip arthroplasty in four large nondomestic felids.

CASE DESCRIPTION: A 9-year-old 37-kg sexually intact male snow leopard (Panthera uncia) with no history of lameness but radiographic evidence of right femoral subluxation and flattening of both femoral heads, 2 juvenile (< 1 year old) 25-kg sexually intact male cheetahs (Acinoynx jubatus) with unilateral hind limb lameness resulting from trauma, and an 11-year-old 110-kg sexually intact female Amur tiger (Panthera tigris altaica) with a 2-year history of left hip joint osteoarthritis were examined. CLINICAL FINDINGS: No clinically relevant clinical findings other than hip joint problems were identified. All 4 felids underwent staged bilateral (snow leopard) or unilateral (cheetahs and tiger [Panthera tigris]) total hip arthroplasty (THA). TREATMENT AND OUTCOME: In the snow leopard, both femoral THA components were found to be luxated 1 year after surgery. Treatment consisted of autogenous corticocancellous rib graft augmentation of the dorsal acetabular rims and synthetic suture capsulorrhaphies. The snow leopard lived for an additional 4 years with no additional THA-related complications. In the other 3 animals, catastrophic complications (luxation in the cheetahs and femoral fracture in the tiger) occurred shortly after THA. The THA implants were removed, and excision arthroplasty was performed. Long-term outcomes were good in all 3. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Findings underscore the challenges associated with THA in large nondomestic felids. Given the high risk for early catastrophic failure as a result of luxation or fracture, plans must be made and resources must be available in case revision surgery or implant removal with excision arthroplasty becomes necessary.

REVIEW OF HISTOLOGIC LESIONS AND MORTALITY IN RIO CAUCA CAECILIANS (TYPHLONECTES NATANS) OVER A 22-YEAR PERIOD.

Rio Cauca caecilians (Typhlonectes natans) are a unique, fully aquatic species of amphibian from the order Gymnophiona. They are housed in several zoological institutions and aquaria with limited information available regarding health and disease. This retrospective study evaluates common pathologic findings and causes of mortality of Rio Cauca caecilians from three different institutions over a 22-y period. Comparisons to previous medical health surveys were conducted with evaluation according to age class and sex to determine whether the primary causes of mortality and common histologic findings have remained similar over time and between institutions. Between 1997 and 2019, the 62 mortalities included males (15/62; 24.2%), females (26/62; 41.9%), and undetermined sex (21/62; 33.9%). The majority of examined individuals were adult (38/62; 61.3%), followed by juveniles (13/62; 21.0%), neonates (9/62; 14.5%), and undetermined age class (2/62; 3.2%). Thirteen (21.0%) individuals were euthanatized. Adult females (16/62; 25.48%) represented the largest group. In adults, the most common lesion and contributor to death was renal disease (28/38; 73.7%) followed by skin disease (16/38; 42.1%), including oomycete dermatitis (8/38; 21.1%) from Saprolegnia sp. Other common findings included bacterial dermatitis, gastrointestinal nematodiasis, and adrenal hyperplasia. This retrospective study will provide a useful reference to help guide veterinary care, management decisions, and collection management planning for this caecilian species in managed care.

Shell Lesions Associated With Emydomyces testavorans Infection in Freshwater Aquatic Turtles.

A newly described onygenalean fungus, Emydomyces testavorans, has been isolated from ulcerative shell and skin lesions of freshwater aquatic chelonians. To investigate the shell lesions associated with infection and determine if any lesional features were unique to E. testavorans, tissues from turtles housed in zoological institutions (n = 45) in the United States and free-living turtles (n = 5) submitted for diagnostic biopsy or necropsy were examined. Free-living turtles were from geographically distinct habitats in Florida (n = 1) and Washington (n = 4) at the time of sampling. Histologic shell sections were evaluated for the presence or absence of specific lesional features. Infection with E. testavorans was evaluated in all cases by screening GMS (Grocott-Gomori's methenamine silver)-stained histologic sections for the presence of morphologically consistent fungi and by quantitative PCR (polymerase chain reaction) on representative frozen tissue or formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded sections. Additionally, culture was performed for 15 cases with available fresh/frozen tissue. In total, there were 17 PCR-confirmed E. testavorans cases, 29 cases with morphologically consistent fungi on GMS-stained sections, and 21 cases of shell lesions without histologic or molecular evidence of E. testavorans infection. Epithelial inclusion cysts, defined as cystic structures within the dermis lined by keratinized stratified squamous epithelium and containing necrotic bone and keratin debris, were significantly (P < .01) associated with E. testavorans infection. Other significantly associated shell lesions included squamous metaplasia, hyperkeratosis, inflammation, and osteonecrosis (P < .05). This study identified characteristic shell lesions associated with E. testavorans infection. Further studies to prove causality are needed.

SUCCESSFUL SURGICAL CORRECTION OF PHIMOSIS IN AMUR LEOPARDS (PANTHERA PARDUS ORIENTALIS) USING A CARBON DIOXIDE LASER: CASE SERIES.

Three juvenile (<1 yr of age), genetically related Amur leopards (Panthera pardus orientalis) were diagnosed with phimosis. In all cases, no clinical signs were identified, and phimosis was detected during routine examination. Surgical enlargement of the preputial orifice was performed successfully using carbon dioxide laser with a 0.25-mm tip and an 8-watt continuous wave setting. A linear incision on the ventral aspect of the preputial opening allowed for complete preputial extrusion followed by placement of simple-interrupted sutures on both sides of the incision. No postoperative complications were observed, and there was no evidence of phimosis recurrence at subsequent examinations. Preputioplasty with carbon dioxide laser was used to successfully manage Amur leopards with phimosis. Given relatedness of these cases, a genetic predisposition for phimosis development in Amur leopards must be considered.

OBJECTIVE GAIT ANALYSIS IN HUMBOLDT PENGUINS (SPHENISCUS HUMBOLDTI) USING A PRESSURE-SENSITIVE WALKWAY.

Assessment of pododermatitis, osteoarthritis, and other causes of lameness in penguins can be challenging. Subjective gait analysis using visual observation and response to analgesic therapy can be affected by observer variation and caregiver placebo bias. A pressure-sensitive walkway (PSW), however, allows for objective gait analysis and assessment of analgesic therapeutic response. In this study, a 3-m-long PSW was used to analyze gait in 21 adult Humboldt penguins (Spheniscus humboldti). Medical record reviews and comprehensive examinations were performed on all penguins; five penguins were considered abnormal, with either right-sided (n = 3) or bilateral historical lameness-causing disease (n = 2) and were analyzed separately from the normal data set. All penguins walked across the PSW four times and gait parameters (step and stride distances and velocities, maximum force, impulse, and peak pressure) were calculated for each foot in each penguin. Statistical comparisons were made between right and left feet, sexes, and normal and abnormal penguins for each gait parameter. Among normal penguins, there were no significant differences between feet or sex. Left step width was shorter in abnormal penguins than that of normal penguins. Study results established baseline values for Humboldt penguins. This will allow objective monitoring of progression and response to therapy in penguin lameness cases, both current and future. The data also provide a foundation to compare gait parameters with other penguin populations and species.

SERUM ACUTE-PHASE PROTEINS IN BOTTLENOSE DOLPHINS (TURSIOPS TRUNCATUS) AND CORRELATION WITH COMMONLY UTILIZED INFLAMMATORY INDICES.

Acute-phase proteins (APP) are the foundation to the innate immune response and valuable biomarkers that increase with inflammation, infection, neoplasia, stress, and trauma.2,4,16 Little is known about the acute-phase response in cetaceans and if these proteins can be used for health monitoring in individuals and free-ranging populations. The purpose of this study was to characterize serum concentrations of haptoglobin (Hp) and serum amyloid A (SAA), as well as electrophoretic profiles of common bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) in free-ranging (n = 33) and professional care (n = 27) settings. Results were correlated to commonly utilized inflammatory indices including erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR), fibrinogen, total white blood cell count (WBC), and absolute neutrophil count. SAA levels, measured with a dolphin-specific enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), were significantly higher (P = 0.05) in free-ranging dolphins (mean = 4.26; SE = 1.12) when compared with those under professional care (mean = 1.82; SE = 0.45). For dolphins under professional care, a statistically significant correlation was identified between ESR and Hp (P < 0.001; r = 0.69), ESR and SAA (P < 0.001; r = 0.67), fibrinogen and Hp (P = 0.001; r = 0.58), and fibrinogen and SAA (P = 0.002; r = 0.56). In addition, there was a significant correlation between WBC and SAA (P = 0.01; r = 0.38) and absolute neutrophil count and SAA (P = 0.04; r = 0.32). There were no significant correlations between study variables observed in free-ranging dolphins. The variable correlation of APPs with commonly utilized inflammatory indices demonstrates that these proteins are independent measures of inflammation with unique sensitivity, specificity, and timeline of expression. The results of this study contribute to improved health monitoring of dolphins and have the potential to assist in identification of compromised health.

Evaluation of a pressure sensitive walkway for objective gait analysis in normal and arthritic domestic ducks (Cairina moschata domestica).

Objective gait evaluation with a pressure sensitive walkway (PSW) has been used to assess welfare of poultry and to assess lameness and response to therapy in domestic mammals. Objective gait analysis of birds with lameness due to pododermatitis, osteoarthritis, and other common diseases could provide non-biased assessment and therapeutic monitoring for zoo clinicians. The objective of this study was to evaluate the use of a PSW for objective gait analysis in normal domestic ducks (Cairina moschata domestica) and those with experimentally induced arthritis. Eighteen healthy adult ducks walked across the PSW four times in each experiment at each time point. For experiment 1, gait parameters (step and stride distances and velocities, maximum force, impulse, and peak pressure) were calculated for each foot in each duck (time 0). For experiment 2, six of these ducks were randomly selected, anesthetized, and administered a unilateral intra-tarsal injection of monosodium urate solution to induce arthritis. Serial PSW trials were repeated at 1, 2, 3, 4, 8, and 24 hours post-injection. Gait parameters were calculated and compared at each time point, including baseline at time 0. Among the normal ducks, there were no significant differences between right and left feet for any gait parameter. Maximum force and impulse were significantly lower for the affected limb at the 3- and 4-hour time points in ducks with unilateral induced arthritis. This asymmetry was resolved by 8 hours post injection. This PSW transient arthritis model allows for objective assessment of lameness in domestic ducks with maximum force and impulse serving as the most sensitive gait parameters for lameness detection. This method has potential as a model to assess analgesic efficacy for zoo-housed waterfowl and other avian species.

Analysis of Toxic and Essential Elements in the Blood and Feathers of Humboldt Penguins ( Spheniscus humboldti) at Punta San Juan, Peru.

Whole blood, serum, and feather samples from 29 Humboldt Penguins ( Spheniscus humboldti) at the Punta San Juan Marine Protected Area, Peru, were analyzed for 55 toxic and essential elements by using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. Mercury (Hg) was analyzed by cold vapor atomic fluorescence. Maximum Hg concentrations in serum (0.0056 mg/g), whole blood (0.297 mg/kg), and feathers (1.8 mg/kg dry weight) were at levels generally not considered to cause health impairment. Of the elements analyzed, only eight (aluminum, calcium, iron, Hg, potassium, magnesium, sodium, and zinc) were detected in serum. These elements, plus selenium and titanium, were also quantifiable in whole blood. Feather analysis detected quantifiable values for the elements found in serum, plus arsenic, boron, barium, copper, manganese, and titanium. Results indicate this important breeding population of endangered penguins did not appear to be exposed to environmental elemental contaminants at levels detrimental to health and reproductive success. However, identification of measurable concentrations of toxic elements at low levels underscores the need for continued environmental monitoring, particularly in the face of expanding regional human populations and industrial growth. These results provide important reference data for temporospatial monitoring of this and other penguin populations.

REPEATED ANESTHESIA IN A BLACK RHINOCEROS ( DICEROS BICORNIS) TO MANAGE UPPER RESPIRATORY OBSTRUCTION.

This report describes weekly repeated anesthesia in a 7-yr-old, 1,030 kg, female Eastern black rhinoceros ( Diceros bicornis michaeli), that was immobilized six times using a combination of 2 mg etorphine (0.002 mg/kg), 5 mg medetomidine (0.005 mg/kg), 25 mg midazolam (0.024 mg/kg), and 300 mg ketamine (0.29 mg/kg) delivered intramuscularly (IM) via remote dart to facilitate long-term medical care of a bilateral, obstructive Actinomyces sp. rhinitis. The drug combination described in this study resulted in reliable, rapid recumbency of the animal within 2-8 min after initial administration via dart and produced deep anesthesia for 34-78 min without supplemental anesthetic administration. Antagonist drugs (100 mg naltrexone [0.1 mg/kg] and 25 mg atipamezole [0.024 mg/kg] IM) produced reliable and uneventful recoveries in all the procedures. During each anesthetic procedure, the animal was intubated and provided intermittent positive pressure ventilation with a megavertebrate demand ventilator. Tachycardia and hypoxia noted after induction resolved after positive pressure ventilation with oxygen. This report provides useful information on a novel anesthetic protocol used repeatedly for intensive medical management in a black rhinoceros.

COMPARISON OF TRANSCUTANEOUS ULTRASOUND AND COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY EVALUATION OF KIDNEY SIZE AND EVALUATION OF ADRENAL GLAND SIZE USING ULTRASOUND IN A COLONY OF CALLIMICOS ( CALLIMICO GOELDII).

Both kidney and adrenal gland disease have been identified in callimicos ( Callimico goeldii). Ultrasonography (US) and computed tomography (CT) are routinely utilized in veterinary patients with suspected renal or adrenal disease to determine size, shape, and echogenicity of these organs. No previous US and CT kidney and adrenal gland measurements have been published for callimicos. In this study, 14 callimicos were anesthetized using isoflurane via facemask to evaluate kidney and adrenal gland size using US for both organs and CT for kidneys. Animals were considered clinically healthy based on history, physical examination, hematology, serum chemistry, urinalysis, and abdominal US. Ultrasound organ measurements for length (L), width (W), and height (H) in centimeters (mean/median, 95% confidence interval) in clinically healthy animals were right kidney (L = 1.90, 1.76-2.01; W = 1.05, 0.97-1.13; H = 1.59, 1.48-1.69), left kidney (L = 1.84, 1.72-1.95; W = 1.16, 1.04-1.28; H = 1.54, 1.43-1.65), right adrenal gland (L = 0.38, 0.33-0.57; H = 0.19, 0.15-0.31) and left adrenal gland (L = 0.36, 0.32-0.39; H = 0.18, 0.17-0.20). All kidney measurements were positively correlated with animal weight ( P < 0.05) but had no significant correlation to age. Measurements did not have any significant relationship to evaluated blood and urine parameters. Results from this study establish baseline measurements for callimico kidneys and adrenal glands to help clinicians use these imaging modalities for evaluation of these organs in this endangered species.

OSTEOCHONDRAL AUTOGRAFT TRANSFER FOR TREATMENT OF STIFLE OSTEOCHONDRITIS DISSECANS IN TWO RELATED SNOW LEOPARDS ( PANTHERA UNCIA).

Two related female snow leopards ( Panthera uncia) were diagnosed with osteochondritis dissecans of the lateral femoral condyle via radiographs and computed tomography. Lesions were either bilateral (Patient 1) or unilateral (Patient 2). Surgical treatment was performed using an osteochondral autograft transfer system following cartilage flap removal. After a 6-wk recovery period, both animals had a markedly improved gait with mild pelvic limb stiffness. Patient 1 developed intermittent lameness 9 mo postsurgery and Patient 2 had mild lameness 3 yr postsurgery. Because of recurrent lameness, both animals were treated with platelet-rich plasma intra-articular injections and oral gabapentin (Patient 1) or oral meloxicam (Patient 2). Full incorporation of autografts was confirmed with computed tomography (both patients) and arthroscopy (Patient 1 only). Osteochondritis dissecans has been previously reported in snow leopards and these cases represent the first reported use of osteochondral autograft repair and platelet-rich plasma to treat the condition.

ANATOMY, HISTOLOGY, AND DIAGNOSTIC IMAGING OF THE REPRODUCTIVE TRACT OF MALE AARDVARK ( ORYCTEROPUS AFER).

The reproductive tracts of three captive male aardvark ( Orycteropus afer) were evaluated to characterize the gross and histological anatomy, with correlations to ultrasonographic and computed tomographic imaging. Observations were made from a reproductive tract examined at necropsy, with subsequent evaluation of tissues histologically. Two living specimens were evaluated via ultrasonography with a 10-MHz linear transducer. One living animal was also evaluated via computed tomography. Prominent external scent glands were present at the base of the prepuce. Testicles were present internally at the level of the inguinal canal and capable of sliding into a subcutaneous position. Accessory sex glands consisted of seminal vesicles, prostate gland, and bulbourethral glands, with histological characteristics similar to other species. Ultrasonography was an effective tool for evaluation of internal and external reproductive structures, while the usefulness of computed tomography was limited in the evaluation of pelvic organs due to artifact from nearby bony structures. While a larger study population is desirable, this report provides an important comparative anatomical reference and will help improve the clinical management and care of this species.

Lumbar hemilaminectomy for treatment of diskospondylitis in an aardvark (Orycteropus afer).

CASE DESCRIPTION A 17-year-old sexually intact male aardvark (Orycteropus afer) was evaluated because of hind limb proprioception deficits and ataxia. CLINICAL FINDINGS Results of examination and CT suggested a diagnosis of intervertebral disk disease and diskospondylitis at the L2-3 intervertebral space. Magnetic resonance imaging of the vertebral column also indicated intervertebral disk rupture with spinal cord compression and inflammation of the adjacent epaxial musculature TREATMENT AND OUTCOME Hemilaminectomy was performed according to the technique described for dogs. Anatomic variations encountered intraoperatively limited the ability to completely remove the affected disk material; however, adequate decompression of the spinal cord was achieved. Microbial culture and susceptibility testing of surgical biopsy specimens yielded a multidrug-resistant Enterococcus faecalis that was treated with a 10-week course of linezolid. Intensive postoperative care required constant rate infusions for adequate sedation, analgesia, and antimicrobial treatment. Dehiscence of the surgical site occurred 3 weeks after surgery and was treated with negative pressure wound therapy. Physical rehabilitation initiated 5 days after surgery progressed from passive range of motion to the use of an underwater treadmill. Despite initial improvement, acute deterioration occurred 5.5 months after surgery. Repeated CT revealed progression of diskospondylitis, which prompted euthanasia. CLINICAL RELEVANCE Postoperative hind limb paresis and paralysis in this species presented considerable challenges for care and rehabilitation. Patient demeanor, size, and anatomy required development of custom mechanical devices. Despite the inability to eliminate the multidrug-resistant bacterial osteomyelitis that resulted in the death of this aardvark, information gained may benefit treatment of subsequent patients.

ASSESSMENT OF POLYCHLORINATED BIPHENYLS, ORGANOCHLORINE PESTICIDES, AND POLYBROMINATED DIPHENYL ETHERS IN THE BLOOD OF HUMBOLDT PENGUINS ( SPHENISCUS HUMBOLDTI) FROM THE PUNTA SAN JUAN MARINE PROTECTED AREA, PERU.

Persistent organic pollutants were assessed in Humboldt Penguins ( Spheniscus humboldti) from the Punta San Juan Marine Protected Area, Peru, in the austral winter of 2009. Plasma samples from 29 penguins were evaluated for 31 polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) congeners and 11 organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) by using gas chromatography coupled to an ion trap mass spectrometer and for 15 polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) congeners by using gas chromatography coupled with high-resolution mass spectrometry. The detection rate for PCBs in the samples was 69%, with congeners 105, 118, 180, and 153 most commonly detected. The maximum ΣPCB concentration was 25 ng/g. The detection rate for DDT, DDD, and/or DDE was higher than for other OCP residues (90%; maximum concentration=10 ng/g). The detection rate for PBDEs was 86%, but most concentrations were low (maximum ΣPBDE concentration=3.81 ng/g). This crucial breeding population of S. humboldti was not exposed to contaminants at levels detrimental to health and reproductive success; however, the identified concentrations of legacy and recently emerged toxicants underscore the need for temporal monitoring and diligence to protect this endangered species in the face of regional human population and industrial growth. These results also provide key reference values for spatial comparisons throughout the range of this species.

Treatment of mandibular osteomyelitis in two red-necked wallabies (Macropus rufogriseus) by means of intensive long-term parenteral drug administration and serial computed tomographic monitoring.

CASE DESCRIPTION 2 female red-necked wallabies (Macropus rufogriseus) were evaluated because of sudden-onset mandibular swelling, ptyalism, and hyporexia. CLINICAL FINDINGS Physical examination revealed a mandibular swelling with a fluctuant center in both wallabies. Hematologic analysis revealed leukocytosis with a mature neutrophilia and monocytosis in one wallaby (case 1) and a slight neutrophilia, hyperglobulinemia, and high serum alanine aminotransferase activity in the other (case 2). Cytologic examination of the swelling revealed a uniform population of gram-negative rods in case 1 and neutrophilic inflammation in case 2. Radiography revealed a soft tissue mandibular swelling with osteolucency around mandibular incisor roots in both wallabies. Computed tomography revealed changes consistent with chronic active mandibular osteomyelitis and reactive bone formation, but also sequestra formation not appreciable via radiography. TREATMENT AND OUTCOME Long-term antimicrobial treatment was initiated with clindamycin (17 to 21 mg/kg [7.7 to 9.5 mg/lb], IV, q 12 h for 40 to 55 days) and high-dose benzathine penicillin G (80,000 U/kg [36,364 U/lb], SC, q 12 h for 150 days). Serial CT was performed to evaluate response to treatment and resolution of disease. A CT scan 18 months after the initial evaluation revealed complete resolution of osteomyelitis and sequestra. CLINICAL RELEVANCE Advanced imaging and long-term treatment and management were integral to the successful outcome for these wallabies, given that the osseous changes visible on CT images were not visible on standard radiographs, guiding therapeutic decision-making. This report provides new therapeutic and diagnostic monitoring information to assist clinicians with similar cases.